On an airplane going into Albuquerque last summer, I ended up sitting next to a man who works at a laboratory where technology is used to examine brain development and brain activity. I took the opportunity to ask him about some new research I had read concerning the mental processing of adolescents as it relates to the biological development of the brain itself. While he was not really willing to speculate as to the implications of such research, he confirmed that new technology allows us to see the development of the brain in ways we have not had before.

If you are already thinking, This belongs in the "physical development" section of this book, you are probably right. I promised back there that if you would link to this section, you would get to read all about it. In addition, you may see more detail, especially about emotional regulation in the article about emotional development.

New research has challenged the assumption that the brain was fully developed by the time that the skull reached adult size. With the ability to use Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technology to observe growth, scientists have concluded that the teen brain is far from mature. It is instead, a work in progress. According to U.S. News and World Report, online edition, the neural wiring is not completely in place until most people are near 20 (accessed 9/1/99).

As physical development is more about sequence than timing, it stands to reason that different parts of the brain develop on different timetables. According to researchers the last part of the brain to develop is the part that involves making sound judgments and self-regulating emotional reactions. Without drawing this out, two systems are active in our brains when we are placed under stress or have to make a decision. The limbic system is deep in our brain and is associated with instinctive reaction, particularly to fright or elation or to other sudden stimuli. The prefrontal cortex, located in the front lobe of the brain is the regulator (U.S. News called it a "mental traffic cop") of such emotion. The prefrontal cortex is what develops last.

In other words, the ability to have a gut reaction is already wired in full, but the ability to discern, handle ambiguous information, coordinate conflicting signals, or calm down emotions is still under construction. Adolescents can watch multiple screens simultaneously, but they cannot keep track of multiple thoughts and cannot recall past experiences instantly in order to factor them into a present decision. They "may also have trouble organizing several tasks, deciding, for example, which to do first: call a friend, wash the dishes, or read the book for a report that's due in the morning".

So what does the development of the brain have to do with mental development? It gives some handles to what youth workers have long suspected: our role is critical in helping teenagers navigate the journey from childhood thinking to adult thinking. Paul wrote that "when I was a child, I used to speak like a child, think like a child, reason like a child; when I became a man, I did away with childish things (1 Cor 13:11). The child thinks in terms of what is seen and held, and the adolescent is beginning to think in the adult world of possibilities, potentialities, "what if?" theoreticals, and "might be."

A giant step in mental development for the adolescent is the ability to deal not just with the immediate and real but with the possible and abstract. Problem solving is enhanced because the teenager is able to approach a problem by imagining all the possible solutions and thinking through each possibility. These adolescents are able to engage in introspection and think about their thoughts. They pick up the ability to do both inductive and deductive reasoning (Rice 1999, 38). During adolescence, teenagers learn to think differently in five areas (Steinberg 1996, 71):

• They become better able to think about what is possible than limit their thought to what is real.
• They become better able to think about abstract issues (potential and hypothetical).
• They think more about the thinking process.
• Their thinking tends to be more multidimensional rather than being limited to single issues.
• They are more likely than children to see things as relative rather than absolute.

Intelligence in adolescence is not just an increase in quantity of thought but an increase in quality. Youth begin to think in abstract terms. They can comprehend broad truths from all humankind and deal with wild and absurd possibilities. They may, however, occasionally suffer from mental overload. They want to go deeper, but their mind freezes up. They also occasionally suffer from critical idealism. In other words they may tend to be too idealistic and not realistic enough in their thinking. Since they enjoy thinking about thinking, they tend to develop egocentricity where they spend too much time thinking about what everyone else might be thinking about them. Early in this process adolescents tend to be clumsy in their decision making. They begin to think of so many alternatives that they make poor decisions (Black 1991, 102-03).

In developing a worldview, abstract thought is significant in the process of spiritual transformation. Specifically, the spiritual decisions adolescents make in the course of a youth ministry may reflect the journey into abstract thought.  The recommitments they make along the way may be because they are able to commit more of themselves (for example, True Love Waits) as their cognitive ability provides a framework for deeper commitment.

Recall also that most adolescents see conversion not as a point in time but as a process that may take years. As their base of experience grows and their ability to process information with greater sophistication increases, they can comprehend that God is more than a storybook character or a cosmic grandfather. Their cognitive growth enables their spiritual growth. Adolescents now are able to appreciate God through the metaphors in Scripture without being confused about the reality of redemption. As they experience the living God, they solidify their faith commitment. As Paul wrote, they are working out their salvation with fear and trembling (see Phil. 2:12).

Intelligence Tests (or IQ tests) are some of the most widely used assessment tools in the world of education. If you have taken an Iowa Test, a California Test, an SAT, an ACT, or any other state or alphabet combination, then you have taken a form of an intelligence test. The actual goal of an intelligence test is to measure mental age against physical age. So your IQ score would be figured on the following formula:

Mental Age
        Chronological Age X 100

Simply put, an IQ test is a mathematical formula that expresses a relationship between chronological age and mental age. The difficulty comes with the measurement of mental age.

IQ testing is not without controversy, especially when it is the sole assessment used to determine whether a person gets into a program or school. Guy Lefrancois said that intelligence is "among the most nebulous but highly prized of all human characteristics" (Lefrancois 1981, 156). As measured by IQ tests, intelligence is related to the portions of the brain that have to do with abstract reasoning, verbal and numerical ability. A single agreed-upon definition of intelligence does not exist.

The first IQ test was devised by Alfred Binet, a French educator. Revised by a Stanford University professor, the test became known as the Stanford Binet intelligence test, and it measured verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory (Rice 1999, 151). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test defined intelligence as "the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, to act purposefully, and to deal effectively with his environment." Others describe intelligence as "the ability to adapt to the environment or the ability to profit from experience" (Lefrancois 1981, 158). Using the above definition, animals are intelligent (and in fact, the dolphin has a better brain weight to total body weight and may be more intelligent than humans). The problem that many have with IQ tests is the perception that a single number indicates how smart a person is or isn't.

Critics point out that it is possible for a person to have numerous abilities, all of which cannot be measured by reading for comprehension and solving arithmetic problems. In addition, IQ tests fail to take into consideration particular differences that fluctuate with individuals. No allowance is made for environment or culture. Most convincing in the argument against IQ tests is that they only measure performance and not potential. For our purposes, remember that the labeling produced by an IQ score can have more impact than whatever quality intelligence is supposed to describe.

Howard Gardner is a psychologist/educator from Harvard University who proposed that intelligence was more than merely a measure of aptitude in reading and math. He believed that intelligence was more than one aggregate score; rather it is a combination of "intelligences" possessed by an individual. Gardner was first known for his writing in the area of creativity, but he introduced the concept of multiple intelligences in Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligences, published in 1993.

Gardner identified seven intelligences (summarized well in Ann Sullivan, "Making Theories of Intelligence Work for You," Youth Ministry Update, June 1995). In 1996, Gardner added another "intelligence" called "naturalist" and is considering one called "existentialist," a philosophic slant that may or may not ultimately be considered a separate intelligence. He had several criteria for inclusion as an intelligence including presence of child prodigies, idiot savants (mentally challenged persons who excel at one particular ability), and people who have suffered damage to a particular part of the brain (Cobb 1998, 169).

Gardner's intelligences may be summarized as follows (Santrock 1998, 149; Rice 1999, 150-51; additional information adapted from (http://www.surfaquarium.com accessed 8/6/00).

Verbal/linguistic—Students with this talent speak comfortably and fluently and learn new words and expressions easily. They also memorize verbal materials such as poems much more easily than other students do. They will demonstrate strength in the language arts: speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching. Such students are often drawn to careers such as attorney, comedian, editor, historian, interpreter, journalist, lawyer, librarian, manager, novelist, orator, philosopher, playwright, poet, politician, proof reader, psychotherapist, public speaker, public relations person, reporter, sales people, secretary, social scientist, storyteller, supervisor, talk show host, teacher, technical writer, translator, or writer.

Mathematical/logical—Students with this skill organize objects and concepts well. Using a microcomputer, for example, comes easily, as does mathematics. These students display an aptitude for numbers, reasoning, and problem solving. By the way, this is the other half of the traditional indication of the single view of intelligence. Possible careers that would attract mathematical/logical persons include accountant, analyst, banker, biologist, bookkeeper, chemist, chess player, city planner, computer programmer, economist, engineer, financial service, inventor, investment broker, lawyer/paralegal, logician, mathematician, mechanic/mechanical engineer, microbiologist, pharmacist, physician, programmer, records clerks, researcher, scientist, statistician, tax accountant, or technologist.

Visual/spatial—These students literally can find their way around. They know the streets of the neighborhood better than most children their age do, and if they live in the country, they can find their way across large stretches of terrain without getting lost. They enjoy symmetry, like puzzles, and can play "pictionary" well. A spatial student might be attracted to these careers: advertiser, architect, artist, builder, carpenter, cartographer, chess player, coach, commercial artist, computer specialist, craftsperson, decorator, dentist, draftsperson, engineer, fashion designer, film editor/director, furniture restorer, geographer, geometrician, graphic designer, guide, hairdresser, industrial design, interior designer, inventor, landscape architect/designer, makeup artist, mechanic, navigator, outdoors guide, painter, photographer, pilot, sailor, sculptor, seamstress, set designer, sign painter, surgeon, surveyor, tailor, or urban planner.

Bodily/kinesthetic—Some students (including my son!) experience learning best through activity: games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These students were often labeled "overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit still! They excel at learning that involves body, balance, and agility. This child is sensitive to the internal sensations created by body movement. As a result, he or she finds dancing, gymnastics, and other activities requiring balance easy to learn. A kinesthetic child might end up in a career like acrobat, actor, actress, aerobic teacher, architect, assembler, athlete, ballet dancer, building trade person, carpenter, choreographer, clown, coach, commercial artist, construction worker, craftsperson, dancer, drama coach, engineer, equestrian, gymnast, inventor, jockey, juggler, magician, manual laborer, massage therapist, mechanic, mime, physical therapist, physical education teacher, pianist, rodeo rider, sculptor, stunt people, surgeon, or trainer.

Musical/rhythmic—These students not only play one or more musical instruments, but they also sing and discern subtle musical effects. Usually musical talent also includes a good sense of timing, or rhythm. They enjoy a story that has organized parts (movements). Music/rhythmic students learn well through songs, patterns, rhythms, instruments, and musical expression. They could be drawn to a career as band member, choir director, conductor, composer, critic, dancer, disc jockey, figure skater, instrumentalist, instrumental instructor, manager, music critic, musical performer, music teacher, music therapist, professional performer, promoter, recording technician, rock group member, singer, songwriter, sound engineer, teacher, or violinist.

Interpersonal—A student with interpersonal skill shows excellent understanding of others' feelings, thoughts, and motives. Social encounters come easily. Students who are noticeably people-oriented and outgoing do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. Interpersonal students may find themselves in a career such as business person, chess player, childcare worker, clergy person, coach, community organizer, consumer service advocate, counselor, homemaker, manager, mediator, nurse, politician, probation officer, psychologist, psychotherapist, public relation promoter, receptionist, recreation assistant, religious leader, salesperson, secretary, social leader, social director, social worker, teacher, therapist, travel agent/counselor, waiter, or waitress.

Intrapersonal—A student with intrapersonal skill has a good understanding of his own feelings, thoughts, and motives. Again, social encounters come easily. These students are especially aware of their own values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves. Intrapersonal people may end up as consultant, counselor, creative writer, entrepreneur, guru, leadership trainer, philosopher, psychiatrist, psychologist, psychotherapist, researcher, sage, self-employed person, spiritual counselor, therapist, or writer.

Naturalist—In 1996, Gardner added as an intelligence those students who love the outdoors, animals, and field trips. More than this, though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. This child has a sensitivity to the world of nature—living things. Naturalist intelligence involves ability to value the environment. More than an interest and more like a skill, Gardner defines the naturalistic intelligence as an ability to recognize and classify elements of the natural world. Naturalist persons may be employed as animal handler, anthropologist, astronomer, biologist, botanist, chef, environmentalist, landscape artist, navigator, park ranger, sailor, veterinarian, weather tracking specialist, zoo keeper.

If you got somewhat bogged down in all of that "intelligence," close your eyes and picture your class or group of teenagers, your family, or any other group of kids that comes to mind. The majority of teaching that is done in youth ministry teaches to the verbal and visual intelligences. If some kids just don't plug in, perhaps it is because they are smart in a way besides with words.

When thinking about different types of intelligence, remember:

• Everyone has some of all the intelligences, and most persons have strength in two or more.
• The intelligences do not cancel one another out; they work together.
• Gardner did not suggest multiple intelligences to leave anyone out but to show teachers and learners that everyone has something to contribute but the key to unlock the potential may vary.

One other aspect of cognitive development that wakes up during adolescence is the use of information processing strategies. Processing strategy emphasizes progressive steps when an adolescent receives, perceives, remembers, thinks about, and uses information. One way I have illustrated information processing strategies lately is to think about the way that most people deal with e-mail. When we open our inbox, we scan the mail we have received. We immediately delete some of it; we mentally postpone reading some more; and we immediately read what we decide is most important for the moment.

An adolescent receives a piece of information, chooses which if any of the input he will deal with, interprets the meaning of the message, considers his response, and reacts accordingly. Information processing matures with abstract thought of adolescence in four basic ways Siegler cited in Cobb 1998, 165):              

• Speed information is processed
• Use of strategies
• Discerning what one needs to know
• Knowledge or the stored information used to filter new information

One other dimension of cognitive development that is of interest to those of us who work with teenagers is creativity. In a way creativity is an information processing strategy. As adolescents have the freedom to think, combined with newfound abstract thinking, fueled by technology that exposes them to a wide range of ideas, creativity emerges as a byproduct.

In my youth education classes, we introduce creative thinking by asking the class as a whole to list all of the possible uses they can think of for a brick (thanks again to my mentor Jim Minton). Once the list is written on the board, we try to see if any categories of uses can be identified. So anything that uses a brick for construction is called "building" and anything that involves pounding or beating is called "tools" and anything that sounds aggressive is labeled "weapons."

The exercise helps us to see the major aspects of creativity:                  

Fluency—Number of different responses (total uses of a brick)

Flexibility—Shifts from one class of response to another (number of categories)

Elaboration—Use of details to work out an idea (You should hear some of the stories—like using a brick for a blanket heater by heating it in a fire before placing it at the foot of a bed.)

Originality—Unusual responses, occurring less than 5 percent of the time (like using a brick to save water by putting it in your toilet tank).

The reason creativity is valuable for adolescents is that it gives them another tool to deal effectively with all of the information coming their way. Creative adolescents (Cobb 1998, 461-62):

• Enjoy risks that come with uncertainty.
• Tolerate disorder.
• Welcome people and ideas that are different from theirs.
• Do not assume that roles exist, and, if they do, they should not interfere with creative thinking.
• Are reflectively spontaneous.
• Are analytically intuitive.
• Are good at association.

In order to facilitate creative thinking, those who work with teenagers should encourage persistence, challenge ability to combine things, allow adolescents to challenge assumptions, support independent decision making and applaud insightful observations or questions.

Eugene Roehlkepartain wrote of the dangers of youth ministries that do not provide a thinking environment. Research shows that youth who experience a thinking environment are twice as likely as those who are spoonfed knowledge to say that faith is the "most" or a "very important" influence in their lives. Thinking environments expect youth to take time thinking through issues, asking tough questions, and thinking for themselves. Teenagers need to be encouraged to look at the world differently (Roehlkepartain 1994, 53). Bo Boshers of Willow Creek Church adds, "We need to give our students and leaders permission to perform their mental gymnastics in order to mature intellectually into adulthood" (Boshers 1997, 86).

YQ: Does your home and/or church encourage thinking? Identify teenagers in your home and/or church who are not plugging in. What are their strengths in learning (musical/rhythmic, intrapersonal, etc.)? What can you change in order to plug these teens into the church family?