One of the most helpful ways to look at the issue of emotional development is to view it through the lens of identity development. I did my doctoral dissertation in this area because I was curious as to how much we in youth ministry actually paid attention to the developing identity when we planned our youth programming. The theory I chose to explore was that of Erik Erikson (1902-92), a teacher and author who proposed that an adolescent's emerging identity was a combination of biological and social forces. Erikson taught at Harvard and Berkley. He was not satisfied with Freud's explanation that our personalities (identities) had to do with sex. Erikson studied people to discover the major changes that should take place during each part of one's life. He believed that individuals go through stages of personality development, where each stage has its own crisis, which must be worked through successfully. Erikson also believed that each particular stage of life was exactly the right time for clicking in the particular puzzle piece of identity that was meant for that stage. Though development occurs in the same set sequence for all, each stage consists of a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a turning point (crisis) of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential (called the epigenetic principle).

A physical illustration of this principle would be that a child who learns to walk somewhere between 9 and 18 months is built physically for learning to walk (low to the ground, thick legs, etc.). Likewise in the development of the identity, a person is faced with a crisis. If the conflict of the stage is resolved successfully, a positive quality is built into the personality—otherwise the ego is damaged (Erikson 1968). The resolution of that crisis gives the person the chance to make a change that can be positive and helpful or that can be negative and limiting for the future development of that person.

Erikson identified eight phases of development in terms of conflicts that must be resolved during each particular phase. Every phase involves a crisis that can be resolved by achieving some level of competence. Phases one through three relate to infancy and childhood. Phase four, known as industry versus inferiority, relates to older children. Phase five, identity versus role confusion, relates mostly to adolescents; and phase six, intimacy versus isolation, relates to older adolescents or young adults. The remaining two stages relate to middle and late adulthood. The phases throughout life show the possibilities involved with solving that particular crisis:

1. Trust verses mistrust (infant)—A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and minimal fear and apprehension about the future. The ability to trust or not to trust will be made during the first year of life. Hope is the desired outcome of crisis, which prepares the individual for the next step. If not, the person may develop an attitude of "why care?"

2. Autonomy verses shame and doubt (toddler)—After gaining trust in their primary caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behavior is their own. They realize their will and assert their independence, or autonomy. If infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame or doubt. The kitchen can become a place of self-exploration. Will is the desired outcome.

3. Initiative verses guilt (preschooler).—As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more than when they were infants. Active, purposeful behavior is required to meet challenges. When children are asked to assume some responsibility (bodies, behavior, toys), responsibility begets initiative. Negative resolution results in children who are irresponsible and made to feel guilty about it. Erikson would say to let the irresponsible child succeed! The successful child is able to stay with things; parent may be constantly telling the child, "No." The difference is the parent has provided a place of exploration. Purpose is the desired outcome.

4. Industry verses inferiority (grade school-preteen)—With initiative come even more experiences. Energy is directed toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. This is a period of imagination, discovery, and enthusiasm about learning. Inferiority is possible when a child develops feelings of incompetence and unproductivity. Erikson believed it to be the role of teacher to push children to accomplish things that one would never have thought of by oneself (Erikson 1968, 127). Competence is the desired outcome.

5. Identity verses role confusion (adolescent)—Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life. They will explore different roles and paths within those roles. If they are not allowed to experiment, negative identity resolution is possible. Fidelity is the desired outcome.

6. Intimacy verses isolation (young adult)—Young adults face the task of forming intimate relationships with others who are separate from their immediate families. Intimacy is defined as "finding oneself yet losing oneself in another, the ability to share oneself." Love is the desired outcome.

7. Generativity verses self-absorption (middle adult)—The chief concern is to help a younger generation in developing and leading useful lives. Youth worker and mentoring implications are involved in the positive resolution. Negatively, the feeling of not contributing anything worthwhile to the next generation results in self-absorption or stagnation. Care is the desired outcome.

Ego integrity verses despair (senior adult)—In the twilight of life people need to look back on life and feel that it was worthwhile. "I did some things right and some wrong, but it was all good. It was a good ride." Wisdom is the desired outcome.

Erikson suggested that one primary function of adolescence with regard to personality development is to provide for a time of moratorium. As a child in "time out" suspends play in order to process (usually as a result of a disciplinary action), the adolescent delays assuming adult roles. Decision making is put in "time out." Erikson identified an identity (emotional development or personality) crisis subplot going on within adolescence. During this time adolescents wrestle with their own set of crises to resolve. You can easily spot your teenager in the crises Erikson identified:

Time perspective versus time diffusion, time identity—Teenagers have no clue about time, as seen in a lack of understanding for duration (how much time passes) or punctuality (being on time). The task is to develop a stable concept of time. Negative resolution is to hope that time will stand still to avoid problems or that time itself will make them go away.

Self-certainty versus apathy, confidence identity—Adolescents need small successes so that they can develop confidence with regard to who they are or who they can be. Lacking this confidence, adolescents react as if they are unconcerned.

Role experimentation versus negative identity, social role identity—Youth workers and parents are usually alarmed when their student comes home with an earring or green hair. Sometimes in the quest to discover who they can be, adolescents find assuming negative roles more comfortable. Often adolescent moratorium~ is long enough for these roles to work out and result in positive adulthood—but not always.

Anticipation of achievement versus work paralysis, vocational identity—Up to 20 hours of part-time employment is healthy for teenagers to discover the "world of work." Other avenues are mission trips or ministry responsibility, but the idea is to focus energies toward productive ends while rejecting inactivity. Dealing with this crisis can aid in vocational choices and the potential to "earn their keep."

Sexual identity versus bisexual diffusion, sexual identity—This crisis deals with identifying with an appropriate sex role and rejecting bisexual tendencies. (See earlier discussion in social development chapter.) An adolescent who is experiencing the explosion of hormones~ needs clear role models to learn appropriate masculinity or femininity.

Leadership polarization versus authority diffusion, leadership identity—It is possible to lead, it is possible to be led. This crisis helps adolescents develop a willingness to understand their leadership potential and step up to leadership when it is appropriate. Youth ministries are key places for this competency to develop.

Ideological polarization versus diffusion of ideals, religious (or values) identity—In our pluralistic society~ it is more important than ever to help students grasp a biblical worldview. In a culture with so many choices, many options conflict with biblical values. The need in adolescence is to arrive at a belief system.

The central task in phase five is the development of a sense of identity. Identity for adolescents is not so much a discovery as a commitment to the potential of whom one can become (Black 1991, 86). According to Erikson, the search for identity neither begins nor ends with adolescence. Identity clarification is a lifelong process that has roots deep in childhood. The community and culture help mold it. Erikson emphasized that the teenage years are a normative crisis, a normal phase of increased conflict characterized by fluctuation of ego~ strength. He believed there must be a integration of all converging identity elements and a resolution of conflict that he divided into seven major parts:

1. Temporal perspective versus time confusion—gaining a sense of time
2. Self-certainty versus self-consciousness—believing in oneself
3. Role experimentation versus role fixation—experimenting with roles
4. Apprenticeship versus work paralysis—trying out occupations
5. Sexual polarization versus bisexual confusion—determining male and female roles
6. Leadership and followship versus authority confusion—deciding whom to follow
7. Ideological commitment versus confusion of values—determining something in which to believe (Erikson 1968)

In identity formation, Erikson stressed the importance of developing a vocational identification (see 4) and a personal philosophy of life (see 7). The formation of a vocational identification requires adolescents to come to grips with talents, interests, and abilities—either to prepare for college or to enter into the work force. Developing a philosophy of life (worldview) including political (social) and religious (personal) provides the teenager with a frame of reference for evaluating and coping with life's events (Dusek 1995, 29). A well-developed identity has two major components: continuity of self and an integration of self. The continuity of self refers to seeing self as remaining fairly consistent from day to day. This would characterize people who have fairly consistent goals, values, and social beliefs from day to day. They don't wake up each morning with a different agenda. Integration of self means a person is comfortable and can identify with various roles they may play—son, student, brother, athlete. It means persons are able to switch in and out of those roles easily (Dusek 1996, 29-30).

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Although Christian education benefits from viewing secular perspectives, these must always be intentioned with biblical perspectives.